ETHICS IN INDIAN TRADITION AND HISTORY

Ethics in Indian Tradition and History

Ethics (nitisastra) is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral values. It studies human character and conduct in terms of good and bad, right and wrong. . Ethics is primarily concerned with the moral issues of the world. A true knowledge of ethics would be attained if one practices and imbibes these moral values.

True religion lays stress on moral virtues. People are required to discharge their duties according to the moral code of ethics. In the knowledge tradition of India, ethics has its origin in its religious and philosophical thinking. From time immemorial, various religious faiths have flourished here. Every religious and every philosophical system of India has a prominent ethical component. Ethics is the core of all these systems. In every religious tradition, good moral conduct is considered essential for a happy and contented life. Without following the path of righteousness no one can attain supreme goal (moksa) of life. For this one has to perform good deeds and avoid wrong-doing.

 Rigveda and Cosmic order  : India has a very ancient history of thinking about ethics. Its central concepts are represented in Ṛigveda, one of oldest knowledge texts not only of India but of the entire world.  In Ṛigveda, we come across the idea of an all-pervading cosmic order (rta) which stands for harmony and balance in nature and in human society. Here rta is described as a power or force which is the controller of the forces of nature and of moral values in human society. In human society, when this harmony and balance are disturbed, there is disorder and suffering. This is the power or force that lies behind nature and keeps everything in balance.

Dharma : In Indian tradition, the concept of rta gave rise to the idea of dharma. The term dharma here does not mean mere religion; it stands for duty, obligation and righteousness. It is a whole way of life in which ethical values are considered supreme and everyone is expected to perform his or her duty according to his or her social position and station in life.

In Buddhism, the word dhamma is used, which is the Pali equivalent of the Sanskrit word dharma. The guidelines and rules regarding what is considered as appropriate behavior for human beings are prescribed in the Dharma Sastras. These are sociological texts that tell us about our duties and obligations as individuals as well as members of society.

In the Hindu way of life, every individual is expected to perform his or her duty appropriate to his or her caste (varṇa) and stage of life (asrama). This division of one’s life into the four asramas and their respective dharmas, was designed, in principle at least, to provide fulfillment to the person in his social, moral and spiritual aspects, and so to lead to harmony and balance in the society. The four asramas are: (1) brahmacarya, stage of studentship; (2) grhastha, stage of the householder; (3) vanaprastha, life in the forest; and saṁnyasa, renunciation.

Apart from this, the concept of four ends of life (purusarthas) is also very important. These four ends of life are the goals which are desirable in them and also needed for fulfillment of human aspirations. These are (1) righteousness (dharma); (2) worldly gain (artha); (3) fulfillment of desire; (kama) and (4) liberation (moksa). The fulfillment of all of these four ends of life is important for man. In this classification, dharma and moksa are most important from the ethical point of view. They give right direction and purpose to human life. For instance, acquiring wealth (artha) is a desirable objective, provided however it also serves dharma, that is, the welfare of the society.

In the Bhagavad-Gita, selfless action (niskama karma) is advocated. It is an action which is required to be performed without consideration of personal consequences. It is an altruistic action aimed at the well-being of others rather than for oneself. In Hinduism this doctrine is known as karma yoga.

The concept of right and wrong is the core of the Mahabharata which emphasizes, among others, the values of non-violence, truthfulness, absence of anger, charity, forgiveness and self realization. It is only by performing one’s righteous duties or dharma that one can hope to attain the supreme path to the highest good. It is dharma alone that gives both prosperity (abhyudaya)and the supreme spiritual good (nisryas).

Similarly, the importance of ethics and ethical values is highlighted in epics and philosophical texts like, Upanisads, Ramayaṇa, darsana-sastras and dharma-sastras.

The darsana sastras are philosophical texts, which provide rational explanations of the ethical issues; the universal moral problems faced by man in daily life are placed in a philosophical context.

In the dharma-sastras, emphasis is on the social ethics. In these texts the inter-personal and social relations are placed in an ethical framework for guidance. In these texts the ethical problems are discussed in an indirect manner.

Apart from these some of the texts directly deal with ethical issues:

1. Viduraniti: Attributed to Vidura, the great Mahabharata character. A rich discourse on polity and dharma-sastra.
2. Kamandakiya Nitisara:A Sanskrit work belonging to c. 700-750 CE.
3. Nitivakyamrtam: Literally the ‘nectar of science of polity’ contains thirty-two discourses in simple Sanskrit prose by a Jain scholar, Somadeva Suri.
4. Ḷaghu Arhanniti: A small manual in Prakrit verse (c. 1088-1172 CE) on civil and criminal laws by Hemachandra, a Jain scholar.
5. Sukranitisara: An abridged Sanskrit text on polity which is attributed to Sukracarya but believed by scholars to be a work of the early mediaeval period of history.
6. Nitikalpataru: A Sanskrit treatise attributed to King Bhoja, available in manuscript only.
7. Niti Satakam: Bhartrhari’s hundred verses on ethics.

Hindu, Jain, Sikh, Buddhist codes of ethics and differences

Sikh ethics

Sikhism is most recent faith in Indian tradition.It also lays great stress on ethics in Human life. Its Founder Gurunanak dev said that truth is higher than anything else. The cardinal virtue according to Guru Granth Sahib are: compassion (daya), charity (dana) contentment (santokh),  non-enmity (nirvair) and selfless service (seva). In addition to these one is morally obliged to practice the general and eternal virtues.

Jain ethics

Jainism places great emphasis on three most important things in life, called three gems (triratna). These are: right vision (samyaka dṛṣṭī), right knowledge(samyaka jñāna) and right conduct (samyaka cāritra).

Apart from these, Jain thinkers emphasize the need for reverence (śraddhā).There are other moral principles governing the life of Jains. Most important of these are ideas of puṇya (merit) and pāpa (demerit). Such deeds are very important from the ethical point of view. Pāpa is the result of evil deeds generated by vice and puṇya is the result of good deeds generated by virtuous conduct. One should take the path of a virtuous life to lead the way to spiritual growth. Right conduct is necessary for the spiritual progress of man.

The most important thing in Jainism is practice of non-violence. It is required that principle of principle of non-violence should be followed in thought, word and deed.

The other cardinal virtues are: Forgiveness, humanity, simplicity, non-covetousness’, austerity, restraint, truthfulness, purity, renunciation and celibacy.

Buddhist ethics

Buddhism gives primary importance to ethics. Sometimes it is called anethical religion as it does not discuss or depend on the existence of God (the Supreme Being with form and attributes) but instead believes in alleviating the suffering of humanity. The ethical values in this faith are based on the life and teachings of the Buddha.

These moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. According to Buddhism, the foundation of ethics is thepañcaśīla (five rules), which advocates refraining from killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct and intoxicants. In becoming a Buddhist, a lay person is encouraged to take a vow to abstain from these negative actions.

In Buddhism, the two most important ethical virtues are compassion (karuṇa) and friendliness (maitrī). One should have deep sympathy and goodwill for the suffering people and should have the qualities of a good friend.

The most important ethical value is non-violence or non-injury to all living beings. Buddhist ethics is based on Four Noble Truths. These are:

1. (1) life is suffering
2. there is a cause for suffering
3. there is a way to remove it, and
4. it can be removed (through the eight-fold path). It advocates the path of righteousness (dhamma).
5. In a way this is the crux of Buddhist morality.

The bhakti movement

During the middle ages, the Bhakti movement arose in India. It was an all-India movement of social reform and spiritual awakening. It played a very important part in reawakening moral consciousness in India. Jayadeva, Nāmdev, Tulsīdās, Kabīr, Ravidās and  Mīra are some of the prominent saints of this movement. Most of these saints came from the downtrodden sections of society. Rejecting the distinctions of caste, colour and creed, they spread the message of human equality. They were saint poets. In their vāṇī (poetic compositions) they propagated the ideals of love, compassion, justice and selfless service. These are the ethical values which we need even today

The philosophical and ethical systems, ground rules of discussion

Philosophical Systems

A philosophical system is a consistent set of values and criteria that apply to a wide variety of issues. We have examined four systems:

1. Idealism: Reality is basically spirit or idea. Knowledge is gained through the mind. Value is measured by conformity to ideals.

2. Realism: Reality is basically matter or the physical universe. Knowledge is gained through the senses. Value is measured through conformity to nature.

3. Pragmatism: Reality is process or experience. Knowledge is gained through trial and error. Value is measured by what is of practical benefit to society.

4. Existentialism: Reality is self-defined. Knowledge is gained through personal decision making. Value is measured by responsible individual choice.

Ethical Systems

An ethical system is a consistent set of beliefs which can be applied to a wide variety of ethical dilemmas. Some widely argued systems include:

1. Virtue: Ethical behavior is that which develops moral virtues. Focus on attitudes, intentions, and character traits which enable humans to develop their potential.

2. Utilitarian (Bentham, Mill):  Ethical choices produce the greatest good and the least harm. Focus on consequences of actions.

3. Human Rights (Kant): Human rights are interests and activities which we must respect and protect as a civilization. Every person has the fundamental right to be respected and to be treated as a free and equal rational agent. This implies other rights, such as privacy, truth, and freedom from harm. Focus on actions which do not use people as instruments toward a goal.

4. Fairness/Justice (Aristotle): Treat people consistently the same, unless there are morally relevant differences between them. Focus on fairness and consistency of actions to distribute benefits and burdens among all members of a group.

5. Common Good (Plato, Aristotle, Cicero): Society is a community joined in a shared pursuit of common goals. The good of the individual is inextricably bound to the good of the group. Ethics advances the common good.